Motivation | Center for Integrated Professional Development

Instructors in higher education face the ongoing challenge of engaging a diverse student body with varying levels of motivation, confidence, and sense of belonging. Without a compelling reason to engage, students are unlikely to invest the necessary cognitive effort in processing and retaining course material. Research shows that motivation arises when students perceive a task as both valuable and achievable, yet these perceptions vary widely across individuals and contexts. No single strategy will motivate all students equally, so we need to integrate various strategies into our classroom. This article provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and enhancing student motivation through established psychological theories of motivation (e.g., self-efficacy, expectancy-value theory, and self-determination theory) and offers practical classroom strategies for fostering engagement across our diverse community of learners.

Self-Efficacy Theory

Central to student motivation is self-efficacy, the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific tasks.

According to Bandura (1997) and Zimmerman (2000), self-efficacy is shaped by:

Past performance: Mastery experiences build confidence.
Vicarious experiences: Observing peers succeed can enhance belief in one's own capabilities.
Verbal persuasion: Encouragement and constructive feedback support self-efficacy.
Emotional arousal: Managing stress and anxiety is crucial for maintaining motivation.

Understanding these conditions for self-efficacy can help instructors develop effective strategies to enhance students' self-efficacy.

Here are some examples of instructional strategies.

Create small opportunities for success to build students' confidence by aligning tasks with students' current skill levels and gradually increasing complexity.
Share examples of past students' work and stories of overcoming challenges to provide vicarious experiences. Seeing their peers' success and hearing about how past students overcame difficulties, students can envision themselves succeeding in the classroom.
Provide words of encouragement during complex tasks. Offer feedback that sets high expectations while affirming students' ability to meet them.
Reduce stress by providing clear instructions and expectations and using supportive classroom practices. Negative emotions can impact student learning, so instructors should be aware of the stress and anxiety that students may experience throughout the semester.

Research shows that past performance has the most impact on self-efficacy. Therefore, instructors should prioritize activities that allow students to experience success early and often. Emphasizing a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006) further reinforces the belief that ability can be developed through effort and learning.

Expectancy-Value Theory

Motivation depends not only on perceived ability but also on the value they place on learning. The Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002) posits that students are motivated when they perceive both the possibility of success and the value of the task.

According to this theory, value is multifaceted:

Intrinsic value: Enjoyment or interest in the task.
Attainment value: Importance of doing well for self-identity.
Utility value: Relevance to future goals.
Cost: Perceived sacrifice, such as time and effort, which will be perceived negatively as the value of the task.

To increase perceived value, instructors should connect course content to students' lives and goals, and highlight the relevance of activities and assignments. In this theory, cost is something to be minimized because students may choose to disengage from learning tasks if they feel it is too much work for what it is worth. For example, students may complain about busy work in class as they think that the benefits they gain from the activity outweigh what they consider a reasonable sacrifice. Here are some additional ideas to implement in classrooms:

Here are some additional ideas to implement in classrooms:

Spark intrinsic value by introducing real-world problems or case studies that connect to students' interests.
Reinforce attainment value by framing assignments as opportunities to develop skills central to students' identities.
Highlight utility value by explaining how course skills apply to future careers.
Reduce perceived cost by aligning all the assessments to the learning goals and prioritizing deep learning.

When students see clear relevance and believe success is attainable, motivation and engagement increase significantly

Self-Determination Theory

Motivation also depends on meeting basic psychological needs. Self-Determination Theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000) identifies three psychological needs:

Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) identifies three psychological needs:

Competence: Feeling effective in one's environment.
Autonomy: Having control over one's learning.
Relatedness: Feeling connected to others.

Competence in this theory is closely related to self-efficacy, and strategies to increase self-efficacy would also be effective for this theory. Instructors can foster autonomy by offering meaningful choices in assignments and assessments. Building classroom community and addressing issues of marginalization and microaggressions are essential for enhancing relatedness. Instructors can create opportunities for students to get to know each other and work together through class activities and community engagement projects.

Here are additional ideas to enhance each need:

Spark intrinsic value by introducing real-world problems or case studies that connect to students' interests.
Reinforce attainment value by framing assignments as opportunities to develop skills central to students' identities.
Highlight utility value by explaining how course skills apply to future careers.
Reduce perceived cost by aligning all the assessments to the learning goals and prioritizing deep learning.

When students see clear relevance and believe success is attainable, motivation and engagement increase significantly

Conclusion

Motivation is not a one-size-fits-all phenomenon; it is shaped by students' perceptions, values, and needs. By integrating strategies from self-efficacy theory, expectancy-value theory, and self-determination theory, instructors can create learning environments that empower students to see the relevance of their work, believe in their ability to succeed, and feel connected to a supportive academic community. These efforts not only enhance engagement but also promote persistence and achievement—key outcomes for student success in higher education.

References

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset : the new psychology of success (1st ed.). Random House.

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016

Additional resources

Radil, A. I., Goegan, L. D., & Daniels, L. M. (2023). Teachers’ authentic strategies to support student motivation. Frontiers in Education, 8, 1040996. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1040996

Rosenzweig, E. Q., Wigfield, A., & Hulleman, C. S. (2020). More useful or not so bad? Examining the effects of utility value and cost reduction interventions in college physics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(1), 166–182. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000370

Urhahne, D., & Wijnia, L. (2023). Theories of Motivation in Education: An Integrative Framework. Educational Psychology Review, 35(2), 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09767-9

Wang, Y., Wang, H., Wang, S., Wind, S. A., & Gill, C. (2024). A systematic review and meta-analysis of self-determination-theory-based interventions in the education context. Learning and Motivation, 87, 102015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2024.102015

Zakariya, Y. F. (2022). Improving students’ mathematics self-efficacy: A systematic review of intervention studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 986622. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986622

Written by Mayuko Nakamura, Assistant Director for Assessment and Equitable Pedagogy, Center for Integrated Professional Development. Last updated 11/6/2025

Science of Learning

Browse more Science of Learning resources

Fostering Student Motivation in Higher Education